MOTIVATION
"Motivation" is a Latin word, meaning
"to move". Human motives are internalized goals within individuals.
Motivation may be defined as those forces that cause people to behave in
certain ways. Motivation encompasses all those pressures and influences that
trigger, channel, and sustain human behavior. Most successful managers have
learned to understand the concept of human motivation and are able to use that
understanding to achieve higher standards of subordinate work performance.
According to Koontz and O'Donnell, "Motivation
is a class of drives, needs, wishes and similar forces".
NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF MOTIVATION
Psychologists generally agree that all behavior is
motivated, and that people have reasons for doing the things they do or for
behaving in the manner that they do. Motivating is the work a manager performs
to inspire, encourage and impel people to take required action.
The characteristics of motivation are given below:-
Ø Motivation is an Internal Feeling
Motivation is a psychological phenomenon which
generates in the mind of an individual the feeling that he lacks certain things
and needs those things. Motivation is a force within an individual that drives
him to behave in a certain way.
Ø Motivation is Related to Needs
Needs are deficiencies which are created whenever
there is a physiological or psychological imbalance. In order to motivate a
person, we have to understand his needs that call for satisfaction.
Ø Motivation Produces Goal-Directed Behaviour
Goals are anything which will alleviate a need and
reduce a drive. An individual's behavior is directed towards a goal.
Ø Motivation can be either Positive or Negative
Positive or incentive motivation is generally based
on reward. According to Flippo - "positive motivation is a process of
attempting to influence others to do your will through the possibility of gain
or reward".
Negative or fear motivation is based on force and
fear. Fear causes persons to act in a certain way because they are afraid of
the consequences if they don't.
IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATION
A manager's primary task is to motivate others to
perform the tasks of the organization.
Therefore, the manager must find the keys to get
subordinates to come to work regularly and on time, to work hard, and to make
positive contributions towards the effective and efficient achievement of
organizational objectives. Motivation is an effective instrument in the hands
of a manager for inspiring the work force and creating confidence in it. By
motivating the work force, management creates "will to work" which is
necessary for the achievement of organizational goals. The various benefits of
motivation are:-
• Motivation is one of the important elements in the
directing process. By motivating the workers, a manager directs or guides the
workers' actions in the desired direction for accomplishing the goals of the
organization.
• Workers will tend to be as efficient as possible
by improving upon their skills and knowledge so that they are able to
contribute to the progress of the organization thereby increasing productivity.
• For performing any tasks, two things are
necessary. They are: (a) ability to work and (b) willingness to work. Without
willingness to work, ability to work is of no use. The willingness to work can
be created only by motivation.
• Organizational effectiveness becomes, to some
degree, a question of management's ability to motivate its employees, to direct
at least a reasonable effort towards the goals of the organization.
• Motivation contributes to good industrial
relations in the organization. When the workers are motivated, contented and
disciplined, the frictions between the workers and the management will be
reduced.
• Motivation is the best remedy for resistance to
changes. When changes are introduced in an organization, generally, there will
be resistance from the workers. But if the workers of an organization are
motivated, they will accept, introduce and implement the changes whole heartily
and help to keep the organization on the right track of progress.
• Motivation facilitates the maximum utilization of
all factors of production, human, physical and financial resources and thereby
contributes to higher production.
• Motivation promotes a sense of belonging among the
workers. The workers feel that the enterprise belongs to them and the interest
of the enterprise is their interests.
• Many organizations are now beginning to pay
increasing attention to developing their employees as future resources upon
which they can draw as they grow and develop.
SATISFACTION
Employee satisfaction (Job satisfaction) is the
terminology used to describe whether employees are happy and contented and
fulfilling their desires and needs at work. Many measures purport that employee
satisfaction is a factor in employee motivation, employee goal achievement, and
positive employee morale in the workplace.
Employee satisfaction, while generally a positive in
your organization, can also be a downer if mediocre employees stay because they
are satisfied with your work environment.
Factors contributing to employee satisfaction
include treating employees with respect, providing regular employee
recognition, empowering employees, offering above industry-average benefits and
compensation, providing employee perks and company activities, and positive
management within a success framework of goals, measurements, and expectations.
Employee satisfaction is often measured by anonymous
employee satisfaction surveys administered periodically that gauge employee
satisfaction in areas such as:
• management,
• understanding of mission and vision,
• empowerment,
• teamwork,
• communication, and
• Coworker interaction.
The facets of employee satisfaction measured vary
from company to company.
A second method used to measure employee
satisfaction is meeting with small groups of employees and asking the same
questions verbally. Depending on the culture of the company, either method can
contribute knowledge about employee satisfaction to managers and employees.
TYPES OF MOTIVATION TECHNIQUES
If a manager wants to get work done by his
employees, he may either hold out a promise of a reward (positive motivation)
or he/she may install fear (negative motivation). Both these types are widely
used by managements.
a) Positive Motivation:
This type of motivation is generally based on
reward. A positive motivation involves the possibility of increased motive
satisfaction. According to Flippo - "Positive motivation is a process of
attempting to influence others to do your will through the possibility of gain
or reward". Incentive motivation is the "pull" mechanism. The
receipt of awards for recognition and praise definitely leads to good team
spirit, co-operation and a feeling of happiness.
• Positive motivation include:-
• Praise and credit for work done
• Wages and Salaries
• Appreciation
• A sincere interest in subordinates as individuals
• Delegation of authority and responsibility
b) Negative Motivation:
This type of motivation is based on force and fear.
Fear causes persons to act in a certain way because they fear the consequences.
Negative motivation involves the possibility of decreased motive satisfaction.
It is a "push" mechanism. The imposition of punishment frequently
results in frustration among those punished, leading to the development of
maladaptive behaviour. It also creates a hostile state of mind and an unfavourable
attitude to the job. However, there is no management which has not used the
negative motivation at some time or the other.
MOTIVATION THEORIES
Some of the motivation theories are discussed below
a) McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y:
McGregor states that people inside the organization can
be managed in two ways. The first is basically negative, which falls under the
category X and the other is basically positive, which falls under the category
Y. After viewing the way in which the manager dealt with employees, McGregor
concluded that a manager’s view of the nature of human beings is based on a
certain grouping of assumptions and that he or she tends to mold his or her behaviour
towards subordinates according to these assumptions.
Under the assumptions of theory X :
• Employees inherently do not like work and whenever
possible, will attempt to avoid it.
• Because employees dislike work, they have to be
forced, coerced or threatened with punishment to achieve goals.
• Employees avoid responsibilities and do not work
fill formal directions are issued.
• Most workers place a greater importance on
security over all other factors and display little ambition.
In contrast under the assumptions of theory Y :
• Physical and mental effort at work is as natural
as rest or play.
• People do exercise self-control and self-direction
and if they are committed to those goals.
• Average human beings are willing to take
responsibility and exercise imagination, ingenuity and creativity in solving
the problems of the organization.
• That the way the things are organized, the average
human being’s brainpower is only partly used.
On analysis of the assumptions it can be detected
that theory X assumes that lower-order needs dominate individuals and theory Y
assumes that higher-order needs dominate individuals. An organization that is
run on Theory X lines tends to be authoritarian in nature, the word
“authoritarian” suggests such ideas as the “power to enforce obedience” and the
“right to command.” In contrast Theory Y organizations can be described as
“participative”, where the aims of the organization and of the individuals in
it are integrated; individuals can achieve their own goals best by directing
their efforts towards the success of the organization.
b) Abraham Maslow’s “Need Hierarchy
Theory”:
One of the most widely mentioned theories of
motivation is the hierarchy of needs theory put forth by psychologist Abraham
Maslow. Maslow saw human needs in the form of a hierarchy, ascending from the
lowest to the highest, and he concluded that when one set of needs is
satisfied, this kind of need ceases to be a motivator.
As per his theory these needs are:
(i) Physiological needs:
These are important needs for sustaining the human
life. Food, water, warmth, shelter, sleep, medicine and education are the basic
physiological needs which fall in the primary list of need satisfaction. Maslow
was of an opinion that until these needs were satisfied to a degree to maintain
life, no other motivating factors can work.
(ii) Security or Safety needs:
These are the needs to be free of physical danger
and of the fear of losing a job, property, food or shelter. It also includes
protection against any emotional harm.
(iii) Social needs:
Since people are social beings, they need to belong
and be accepted by others. People try to satisfy their need for affection,
acceptance and friendship.
(iv) Esteem needs:
According to Maslow, once people begin to satisfy
their need to belong, they tend to want to be held in esteem both by themselves
and by others. This kind of need produces such satisfaction as power, prestige
status and self-confidence. It includes both internal esteem factors like self-respect,
autonomy and achievements and external esteem factors such as states,
recognition and attention.
(v) Need for self-actualization:
Maslow regards
this as the highest need in his hierarchy. It is the drive to become what one
is capable of becoming; it includes growth, achieving one’s potential and self-fulfillment.
It is to maximize one’s potential and to accomplish something.
All of the needs are structured into a hierarchy and
only once a lower level of need has been fully met, would a worker be motivated
by the opportunity of having the next need up in the hierarchy satisfied. For
example a person who is dying of hunger will be motivated to achieve a basic
wage in order to buy food before worrying about having a secure job contract or
the respect of others.
A business should therefore offer different
incentives to workers in order to help them fulfill each need in turn and
progress up the hierarchy. Managers should also recognize that workers are not
all motivated in the same way and do not all move up the hierarchy at the same
pace. They may therefore have to offer a slightly different set of incentives
from worker to worker.
c) Frederick Herzberg’s
motivation-hygiene theory:
Frederick has tried to modify Maslow’s need Hierarchy
theory. His theory is also known as two-factor theory or Hygiene theory. He
stated that there are certain satisfiers and not so satisfiers for employees at
work. Intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction, while extrinsic factors
are associated with dissatisfaction. He devised his theory on the question:
“What do people want from their jobs?” He asked people to describe in detail,
such situations when they felt exceptionally good or exceptionally bad. From
the responses that he received, he concluded that opposite of satisfaction is
not dissatisfaction. Removing dissatisfying characteristics from a job does not
necessarily make the job satisfying. He states that presence of certain factors
in the organization is natural and the presence of the same does not lead to
motivation. However, their non-presence leads to de-motivation. In similar
manner there are certain factors, the absence of which causes no
dissatisfaction, but their presence has motivational impact.
Examples of Hygiene factors are:
Security, status, relationship with subordinates,
personal life, salary, work conditions, relationship with supervisor and
company policy and administration.
Examples of Motivational factors are:
Growth, prospectus job, advancement, responsibility,
challenges, recognition and achievements.
d) Victor Vroom’s Expectancy theory:
The most widely accepted explanations of motivation
have been propounded by Victor Vroom. His theory is commonly known as
expectancy theory. The theory argues that the strength of a tendency to act in
a specific way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be
followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual
to make this simple, expectancy theory says that an employee can be motivated
to perform better when there is a belief that the better performance will lead
to good performance appraisal and that this shall result into realization of
personal goal in form of some reward.
Therefore an employee is:
Motivation = Valence x Expectancy.
The theory focuses on three things:
• Efforts and performance relationship
• Performance and reward relationship
• Rewards and personal goal relationship
e) Clayton Alderfer’s
ERG Theory:
Alderfer has tried to rebuild the hierarchy of needs
of Maslow into another model named
ERG i.e. Existence – Relatedness – Growth. According
to him there are 3 groups of core needs as mentioned above. The existence group
is concerned mainly with providing basic material existence. The second group
is the individuals need to maintain interpersonal relationship with other
members in the group. The final group is the intrinsic desire to grow and
develop personally. The major conclusions of this theory are :
• In an individual, more than one need may be
operative at the same time.
• If a higher need goes unsatisfied than the desire
to satisfy a lower need intensifies.
• It also contains the frustration-regression
dimension.
f) McClelland’s Theory of Needs:
David McClelland has developed a theory on three
types of motivating needs :
(i) Need for Power
(ii) Need for Affiliation
(iii) Need for Achievement
Basically people for high need for power are
inclined towards influence and control. They like to be at the center and are
good orators. They are demanding in nature, forceful in manners and ambitious
in life. They can be motivated to perform if they are given key positions or
power positions.
In the second category are the people who are social
in nature. They try to affiliate themselves with individuals and groups. They
are driven by love and faith. They like to build a friendly environment around
themselves. Social recognition and affiliation with others provides them motivation.
People in the third area are driven by the challenge
of success and the fear of failure. Their need for achievement is moderate and
they set for themselves moderately difficult tasks. They are analytical in
nature and take calculated risks. Such people are motivated to perform when they
see at least some chances of success.
McClelland observed that with the advancement in hierarchy
the need for power and achievement increased rather than Affiliation. He also
observed that people who were at the top, later ceased to be motivated by this
drives.
g) Stacey Adams’ Equity Theory:
As per the equity theory of J. Stacey Adams, people
are motivated by their beliefs about the reward structure as being fair or
unfair, relative to the inputs. People have a tendency to use subjective
judgment to balance the outcomes and inputs in the relationship for comparisons
between different individuals. Accordingly:
If people feel that they are not equally rewarded
they either reduce the quantity or quality of work or migrate to some other
organization. However, if people perceive that they are rewarded higher, they
may be motivated to work harder.
h) Skinner’s Reinforcement Theory:
B.F. Skinner, who propounded the reinforcement theory,
holds that by designing the environment properly, individuals can be motivated.
Instead of considering internal factors like impressions, feelings, attitudes
and other cognitive behaviour, individuals are directed by what happens in the
environment external to them. Skinner states that work environment should be made
suitable to the individuals and that punishment actually leads to frustration
and demotivation.
Hence, the only way to motivate is to keep on making
positive changes in the external environment of the organization.
